A series of phosphorylations can lead to enhancement of the original signal. Explanation: Phosphorylation of proteins can alter the activity of that protein, either inhibitory or stimulatory. To turn of the signal, the proteins will be dephosphorylated. Related questions What elements make up proteins? What are some examples of proteins? What are amino acids? What are some examples of amino acids?
What are some examples of the function of proteins? Zhang ZY. Protein tyrosine phosphatases: structure and function, substrate specificity, and inhibitor development. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol.
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A major component of cell signaling cascades is the phosphorylation of molecules by enzymes known as kinases. Phosphorylation adds a phosphate group to serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues in a protein, changing their shapes, and activating or inactivating the protein.
Phosphorylation : In protein phosphorylation, a phosphate group is added to residues of the amino acids serine, threonine, and tyrosine.
The aberrant signaling often seen in tumor cells is proof that the termination of a signal at the appropriate time can be just as important as the initiation of a signal. One method of terminating or stopping a specific signal is to degrade or remove the ligand so that it can no longer access its receptor.
One reason that hydrophobic hormones like estrogen and testosterone trigger long-lasting events is because they bind carrier proteins. These proteins allow the insoluble molecules to be soluble in blood, but they also protect the hormones from degradation by circulating enzymes. Inside the cell, many different enzymes reverse the cellular modifications that result from signaling cascades. For example, phosphatases are enzymes that remove the phosphate group attached to proteins by kinases in a process called dephosphorylation.
Gene expression, vital for cells to function properly, is the process of turning on a gene to produce RNA and protein. For a cell to function properly, necessary proteins must be synthesized at the proper time.
All cells control or regulate the synthesis of proteins from information encoded in their DNA. The process of turning on a gene to produce RNA and protein is called gene expression. Whether in a simple unicellular organism or a complex multi-cellular organism, each cell controls when and how its genes are expressed.
For this to occur, there must be a mechanism to control when a gene is expressed to make RNA and protein; how much of the protein is made; and when it is time to stop making that protein because it is no longer needed. The regulation of gene expression conserves energy and space. It would require a significant amount of energy for an organism to express every gene at all times, so it is more energy efficient to turn on the genes only when they are required. In addition, only expressing a subset of genes in each cell saves space because DNA must be unwound from its tightly-coiled structure to transcribe and translate the DNA.
Cells would have to be enormous if every protein were expressed in every cell all the time. The control of gene expression is extremely complex. Malfunctions in this process are detrimental to the cell and can lead to the development of many diseases, including cancer.
To understand how gene expression is regulated, we must first understand how a gene codes for a functional protein in a cell. The process occurs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, just in slightly different manners. Prokaryotic organisms are single-celled organisms that lack a cell nucleus; their DNA floats freely in the cell cytoplasm.
To synthesize a protein, the processes of transcription and translation occur almost simultaneously. When the resulting protein is no longer needed, transcription stops. As a result, the primary method to control what type of protein and how much of each protein is expressed in a prokaryotic cell is the regulation of DNA transcription.
All of the subsequent steps occur automatically. When more protein is required, more transcription occurs. Therefore, in prokaryotic cells, the control of gene expression is mostly at the transcriptional level. Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated during transcription and RNA processing, which take place in the nucleus, and during protein translation, which takes place in the cytoplasm. Further regulation may occur through post-translational modifications of proteins. Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have intracellular organelles that add to their complexity.
The newly-synthesized RNA is then transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm where ribosomes translate the RNA into protein. The processes of transcription and translation are physically separated by the nuclear membrane: transcription occurs only within the nucleus, and translation occurs only outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm. The regulation of gene expression can occur at all stages of the process. Regulation may occur when the DNA is uncoiled and loosened from nucleosomes to bind transcription factors epigenetic level ; when the RNA is transcribed transcriptional level ; when the RNA is processed and exported to the cytoplasm after it is transcribed post-transcriptional level ; when the RNA is translated into protein translational level ; or after the protein has been made post-translational level.
The rush of adrenaline that leads to greater glucose availability is an example of an increase in metabolism. As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely-linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled.
Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals.
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